Effect of Oxidative Stress in Fertile and Non Fertile Women

Effect of Oxidative Stress in Fertile and Non Fertile Women 3. MATERIAL AND METHODS The materials and methods used in the study entitled â€Å"Comparative study of effect of oxidative stress in fertile and non fertile women† was carried out in the Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, SHIATS, Allahabad. The detail of experimental techniques employed is as follows: MATERIALS STUDY AREA The blood sample of infertile and fertile selected married females having child bearing age (25-35yrs) without any metabolic disorder from different gynecologist clinical hospitals and infertility centers of Allahabad. COLLECTION OF SAMPLE AND SITE OF EXPERIMENT: The present study was carried out by collecting venous blood sample (5ml) of fertile and non fertile selected married females in Allahabad. Group-I 250 normal healthy fertile women without any metabolic disorder, Group-II 250 infertile female without any metabolic disorder. All the subject of the two groups were between the age group 25-35 yrs. 3.2 Glassware: All the glassware used were washed properly with detergent and rinsed with distill water and autoclaved prior to use. Fig.3.1: Flow chart for fertile and infertile females Instrumentation: The following instruments were used during the course of study Autoclave Centrifuge Balance (Remi) Cooling centrifuge (remi C-28) Hot air oven (tempo) Homogenizer Incubator Micropipette tips (100 and 1000  µl) pH meter Spectrophotometer Weighing balance Centrifuge Colorimeter Routine Investigation The routine investigation of the subject include BMI and weight and history which was taken by asking the subjects to fill a from including 9their approval to be a part of the study. 3.5 Routine biochemical analysis:- All of the blood sample were analyzed for 3.5.1 Evaluation of Routine biochemical Parmeters:- Hb : By Sahli (acid hematin) method. Blood Sugar :By GOD/POD method Glycosylated Hb : By Cation method Serum Protein:Biuret method Serum lipid profile Serum Total Cholesterol : By Autopack Kit Method Serum Triglyceride : By Autopack Kit Method Serum HDL Cholesterol : By Autopack Kit Method Serum LDL cholesterol : Friedwald method Serum VLDL cholesterol : Friedwald method 3.5.2 Thyroid Profile:- Serum T3 :ELISA Method Serum T4 :ELISA Method Serum TSH :ELISA Method 3.5.3 Female Reproductive hormones: Serum Estrogen: :ELISA Method Serum Progesteron: :ELISA Method Serum follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) :ELISA Method 3.5.4 Oxidative Stress marker:- Melondialdehyde (MDA): By the santos (1978)method 3.5.5 Antoioxidant level:- Catalase: Brannan (1981) method Ceruloplasmin: By Spectrophotometric method Superoxide dimutase (SOD): By Mishra and Fridovich (1972)Method Estimation protocol of routine biochemical protocol : The body weight and height was calculated manually with the help of weight balance and length scale respectively. Body mass index (BMI): The Body mass index was calculated when body weight is divided by the square of height. 3.5.1 Estimation of Hemoglobin: Hemoglobin reacts with0.1N hydrochloric acid and forms a brown colour complex called hematin.The resulting color after dilution is compared with standard brown glass reference blocks of a sahli hemoglobinometer. Reagent: N hydrochloric acid. Distilled water. Procedure:- By using pasture pipette add 0.1N hydrochloric acid in the tube up to the mark 20 Add 20ul blood to the tube. Leave the solution for 10 mins. Dilute the solution by adding few drops of distill water at a time till the color matches with the glass plate in the comparator. Read the reading. Normal value: In female: 12-14mg/dl In males: 14-16 mg/dl 3.5.2 Estimation of Blood Glucose: Estimation of blood glucose was carried out by using commercial available GOD-POD glucose reagent kit (Autospan, Span diagnostic limited, Surat, India). Glucose oxidase (GOD) oxidizes glucose to gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide. In presence of enzyme peroxidase, released H2O2 is coupled with phenol and 4-aminoanrttipyrine (4-AAP) to form coloured quinoneimine dye. The absorbance of dye is directed proportional to glucose concentration in the sample (Kaplan, 1984) Glucose + O2 + H2O Gluconic acid+ H2 O2 H2O2 + phenol + 4-AAP Qinoneimine Dye + H2O Reagents: 1) Glucose reagent Phosphate buffer Glucose Oxidase Peroxidase 4-amino antipyrine. 2) Glucose diluents 3) Glucose standard Procedure:- Preparation of working Solution: All the reagent are ready -to-use. Pipette into test tube marked Blank Standard Test Serum/plasma 20  µl Cholesterol Standard 20  µl Mix well and incubate at 37 C for 10 minutes at room temp Distilled water 1500  µl 1500  µl 1500  µl The absorbance of the test was taken after standard at 490-550 nm. Calculation: Serum/plasma glucose concentration (mg/dl) = Absorbance of test x 100(Conc. of Std) Absorbance of Std Normal Range: Fasting glucose: 65-110mg/dlPost Prandial: Upto140 mg/dl. 3.5.3 Estimation of Glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1C) The Glycosylated hemoglobin was estimated by (ion exchange resin method) commercially available kit (ERBA Diagnostic Mannheim, Transasisa Bio-Medicals limited, Solan India).A hemolysed preparation of the whole blood is mixed continuously for 5 min with a weak binding cation resin. During this time, HbAo binds to the resin. After the mixing period, a filter is used to separate the supernatant containing the Glycohaemoglobin from resin (Trivelli et al 1971) Hemolysed whole+ Cation exchange resin Fast Fraction Blood separation ( HbA1a,HbA1c,HbA1c) Reagents: Glycohaemoglobin Ion Exchange Resin Reagent Cation-Exchange Resin (8mg/ml) Glycohaemoglobin Lysing Reagent Lysing Agent (10 m M) Glycohaemoglobin Calibrator Calibrator (10%) PROCEDURE: The reaction mixture contained 500 µL Lysing Reagent and 100  µL whole blood and another tube 500  µL Lysing Reagent and 100  µL Calibrator mix and allow it to stand for 5 minutes till lysis is complete. Add 0.1 ml of the hemolysate from step-1 into the approximately marked Ion-Exchange Resin tubes. Close the cap and allow continuous gentle mixing for 5 minutes. Allow the resin to settle to assay temperature for 5 minutes. Position the resin separator in the tube and push down the separators until the resin is firmly packed. Read the absorbance of each tube at 415 nm against deionised water bank. For the fraction of hemoglobin add 20  µL sample hemolysate in 5.0 ml deionised water in calibrator 20  µL Calibrator Hemolysate in 5.0 ml deionised water, mix well and read the absorbance of calibrator and sample at 415 nm against deionised water. Normal Range: 6- 8.3 % Hb 3.5.4 Estimation of Serum Protein: The protein was estimated (Biuret method, End method) by commercially available kit (ERBA diagnostic Mannheim, Transasia Bio-Medicals Limited, Solan, India). The peptide bonds of protein react with copper II ion in alkaline solution to form blue violet color complex, (biuret reaction). Tartarate is added as a stabilizer whilist iodide is used to prevent auto-reduction of the alkaline cooper complex. The absorbance of color complex is proportional to protein concentration (Tietz 1986) Reagents: Total reagent Copper II sulphate Potassium Sodium Tartarate Potassium Iodide Sodium Hydroxide Protein standard Procedure:- Preparation of working Solution: All the reagents are ready -to-use. Pipette into test tube marked Blank Standard Test Serum/plasma 20  µl Protein Standard 20  µl Total protein reagent 1000  µl 1000  µl 1000  µl The absorbance of the test was taken after standard at 546 nm. Calculation: Serum/plasma total protein concentration (g/dl) = Absorbance of test x 6.5 Absorbance of Std Normal Range: Serum Total protein : 6.4-7.8 g/dl 3.5.5 Estimation of lipid profile: Determination of total cholesterol in serum/plasma: Method Name: CHOD-PAP method Principle: Cholesterol esters are hydrolyzed by Cholesterol Esterase (CE) to give free Cholesterol and fatty acids. In subsequent reaction , cholesterol oxidase (CHOD) oxidizes the 3-OH group of free Cholesterol to liberate cholest-4-en-3-one and Hydrogen Peroxide. In presence of Peroxidase (POD), Hydrogen Peroxide couple with 4-Amonoantipyrine (4-AAP) and phenol to produce red Quinoneimine dye . Absorbance of colored dye is measured at 505 nm and is proportional to amount of total cholesterol concentration in the sample. Procedure: Preparation of working Solution: All the reagent are ready -to-use. Pipette into test tube marked Blank Standard Test Serum/plasma 10 µl Cholesterol Standard 10  µl Cholesterol Reagent 1000  µl 1000  µl 1000  µl Mix well. Incubate at 37’c for 10 minutes or at room temperature (15-30’c) for 30 minutes. Read the absorbance of the sample Standard against blank. Calculation: Cholesterol concentration (mg/dl) = Absorbance of test x 200(Conc. of Std) Aborbance of Std Normal Range: 150-250 mg/dl. 3.5.6 Determination of HDL Cholesterol in serum/plasma: Method Name: CHOD-PAP Principle: Low density Lipoprotiens (LDL) Cholesterol, Very Low Density Lipoprotiens (VLDL) cholesterol and Chylomicron fractions are precipitated by addition of polyethylene Glycol 6000 (PEG) .After Centrifugation, the High Density Lipoprotien (HDL) Fraction in the supernatant is determined with CHOD-PAP method. Procedure: Preparation of working Solution: All the reagent are ready -to-use. STEP-I: HDL-Cholesterol separation Take 0.5 ml of serum /plasma in to a glass tube. Add 50ul precipitating reagent. Mix well; leave it for 10 min at room temperature. Centrifuge at 3000 rpm for 10 min. Take the clear supernatant for HDL-Cholesterol. STEP-II: HDL-Cholesterol Estimation. Pipette into test tube marked Blank Standard Test Supernatant form step-I _ _ 10 ul HDL-Cholesterol Standard _ 10 ul _ Cholesterol Reagent 1000 ul 1000 ul 1000 ul Mix Well. Incubate at 37’c for 5 minutes or at Room temperature (15-30 ºC) for 30 minutes.. Read the absorbance of the sample Standard against blank at 510 nm. Calculation: HDL-Cholesterol concentration (mg%)= Absorbance of test x 200(Conc. of Std) Absorbance of Std Normal Range: Men=30-60 mg%, Women= 40-70 mg%. 3.5.7 Estimation of Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL) LDL= Total Triglyceride HDL 5-HDL LDL cholesterol were obtained by calculation using the empirical relationships of (Friedwald et.al.1995) 3.5.8 Estimation of Very Low Density Lipoprotein (VLDL) VLDL =Total triglycerides/5 VLDL cholesterol were obtained by calculations using the empirical relationships of (Freidwald et.al 1995) 3.5.9 Determination of Triglyceride in serum/plasma: Method Name: GPO-TRINDER Principle: Lipoprotein lipase hydrolyses triglycerides to glycerol and free fatty acid. The glycerol formed with ATP in the presence of glycerol Kinase forms Glycerol 3 Phosphate which is oxidized by the enzyme glycerol phosphate oxidase to form hydrogen peroxide. The hydrogen peroxide further reacts with phenolic compound and 4-aminoantioyrine by the catalytic action of peroxidase to form a red coloured quinoneimine dye complex. Intensity of the colour formed is directly proportional to the amount of triglycerides present in the sample. The intensity of chromogen (Quinoneimine) formed is proportional to the Triglyceride in the sample when measured at 505nm (500-540nm). Preparation of working Solution: Allow the reagent bottle and AQUA-4 to attain room temperature .Add the amount of AQUA-4 indicated on the label to the contents of each vial. Swirl to dissolve, allow to stand for 10 min at room temperature. Procedure: STEP-II: HDL-Cholesterol Estimation. Pipette into test tube marked Blank Standard Test Working reagent 1000 ul 1000 ul 1000 ul Distill Water 10 ul _ _ Standard 10 ul Sample 10 ul Mix Well. Incubate at 37’c for 10 minutes. Read the absorbance of the sample Standard against blank at 505 nm (500-540nm) or 505/670nm on bichromic analysers against reagent blank. Calculation: Triglyceride (mg/dl) = Absorbance of test x Conc. of Std (mg/dl) Absorbance of Std Normal Range: Normal fasting levels: 25-160mg/dl. Oxidative stress marker : 3.6.1. Determination of Melon di aldehyde (MDA) in serum/plasma: Reagents required: Tricholoro acetic acid TCA Sulfuric Acid HCL Sodium sulfate N-Butanol 5-1,1,1,3,3 Tetra Ethoxypro-pane (Standard) Procedure: Malondialdehyde (MDA) Assay: Lipid peroxidation in the plasma is evaluated by the spectrophotometric method based on the reaction between MDA and Thiobituric acid (TBARS). Briefly, to 0.5 ml plasma, 2.5 of 20% tricholoro acetic acid (TCA) in 2M sodium sulfate is added. After precipitating the protein with TCA and washing with 0.05sulfuric acid. It was incubated in a boiling water bath for 30 min. After cooling, the samples are exactracted with n-butaneol and centrifuged at 3500rpm. The absorbance of samples is determined at 530nm. Calculation: TBARS (A) =10 x OD of sample/OD of control (Blank) x mg/ml protein. ) Normal Range: 0.5-2.0 nmol/ml 3.7. Estimation of enzymatic antioxidants: 3.7.1 Estimation of SOD activity in serum/plasma: Reagents required: Carbonate buffer (0.2M) Kcl (0.015 M) Epinephrine (0.025M) Preparation of the sample: Collect blood without using an anticoagulant such as heparin, citrate or EDTA. Allow blood to clot for 30 minutes at 25à ¡Ã‚ ´Ã‚ ¼C Centrifuge the blood at 2000 rpm for 15 minutes at 4à ¡Ã‚ ´Ã‚ ¼c.Pipette off the top yellow serum layer without disturbing the white Buffy layer. Procedure: 1 .The reaction mixture composed of 0.1 ml of carbonate buffer (0.2M, pH 10.2), 0.8ml KCl (0.015 M) 0.1 ml of diluted blood and water to make the final volume to 3.0 ml. 2. The reaction was started by adding 0.2 ml of epinephrine (0.025 M). 3. Change in absorbance was recorded at 480 nm at 15 sec interval for 1 min at 25à ¡Ã‚ ´Ã‚ ¼C.(UV-1800 SHIMADZU)Suitable control lacking enzyme preparation was run simultaneously.( Mishra and Fridivicl;1972). Calculation: one unit of enzyme activity is defined as the amount of enzyme causing 50% inhibition of auto oxidant of epinephrine under experimental condition. SOD Activity= Normal range: 12-16 unit/mg protein 3.7.2 Estimation of Ceruloplasmin activity in serum/plasma: At pH 5.4, ceruloplasmin catalyzes the oxidation of PPD to yield a colored product, which is believed to correspond either to Bandrowski’s base or to Wuerster’s red . The rate of formation of the colored oxidation product is proportional to the concentration of serum ceruloplasmin if a correction is made for nonenzymatic oxidation of PPD. Therefore, simultaneous assays are carried pH 5.45, which has been warmed to 37 ºC.The contents of the flask are adjusted to pH 5.45 at 37 ºC by dropwise addition of sodium hydroxide solution (1 mol/liter), and diluted to the mark with acetate buffer solution. The solution is stable for3h. Procedure (1) Into two test tubes (12 X 75 mm), labeled R (reaction) and B (blank), 2 ml of acetate buffer solution was pipetted. (2) Serum, 0.1 ml, is added to each tube. (3) Tubes R and B are placed in a water bath at 37 ºC to reach thermal equilibrium. A flask  containing buffered PPD solution is also placed in the water bath. (4) Warmed, buffered PPD solution (1 ml) is added to both tubes. The contents of the tubes are mixed, and the tubes are kept unstoppered in the water bath. The water bath is covered, to avoid exposure of the tubes to light. (5) After 5 min, 50  µl of sodium azide solutionis pipetted into tube B, and the contents are mixed. The tube is replaced in the water bath. (6) Exactly 30 min later, 50  µl of sodium azide solution is added to tube R, and the contents are mixed. (7) Samples R and B are transferred to spectrophotometer cuvette (light path, 1 cm), and absorbance is measured at 530 nm with a spectrophotometer. The color of the samples remains stable for at least 6 hrs. Calculations Ceruloplasmin (g/liter) = 0.752 (A AB), where AR is the absorbance of sample R, and AB is the absorbance of sample B. Normal range: 20-37mg/dl 3.7.3 Estimation of Catalase (CAT) activity in serum/plasma: Reagents: H2O2(1.2mM) Phosphate Buffer (pH-7.0)(0.05M) Peroxidase /potassium dichromate Procedure: The catalase activity of the hemolysate is determined by adopting the method of Brannan et.al. The assay is based on the disappearance of H2O2 in the presence of the enzyme source at 26 à ¡Ã‚ ´Ã‚ ¼C. In brief the hemolysate is prepared from lysed RBC suspension, further dilute by phosphate buffer(pH-7.0) Here the reaction mixture containing 0.05M phosphate buffer (pH-7.0), 1.2mM H2O2 and 0.2ml of diluted hemolysate is allowed to stand for 25 min. At the end of which reaction is stopped by the addition of 2.5 ml peroxidase reagent containing peroxidase and the red coloured compound chromogen system. Peroxidase reduced the H2O2 to give a compound and absorbance measure at 505 nm. Calculation: Activity= Std Conc.= 20 µ mol Std.OD =0.02 Unit=  µ mol/minute/mg protein Normal range: 3-5 unit/mg protein STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF THE DATA: The results were analyzed using Duncan multiple range test. All the data are expressed as mean. Differences between the groups were considered significant at pË‚0.05

Modes of Power for Women Essay -- Theogony Females Birth Greek Essays

Modes of Power for Women The struggle for control over birth transcends centuries and continents. Gloria Steinem, a women’s rights advocate of the 1990s describes how â€Å"the traditional design of most patriarchal buildings of worship imitates the female body† in order that â€Å"men [can] take over the yoni-power of creation by giving birth symbolically† (Steinem XV). The struggle for control over the power of procreation between the sexes existed in Ancient Greece. It is apparent in the Theogony, an account of the creation of Greek deities, composed by Hesiod sometime between the eighth and seventh centuries. The Theogony depicts how males attempted to subvert control of procreation by monitoring the womb, through force, and by undermining mother-child relationships. The Theogony also describes how women combated the subversion through willpower, deceit, and forming mother-child bonds to preserve the female power of birth, the unique power to control what is created and influenc e the actions of that creation. In the Theogony, creation starts with two powerful initial goddesses: Chaos and Gaia. These goddesses give birth to a plethora of children, all of them born â€Å"without [the goddesses] mating in sweet love† (line 132). Because they give birth through self-procreation the goddesses have absolute control over their wombs. As other deities are born self-procreation is replaced by births of dual parentage. With gods and dual parentage, subversion of the female womb begins. Absolute control of birth is replaced by the struggle between genders for control of birth. Gods gain access to the womb three ways: limiting or monitoring the offspring that the womb releases, using sexual force against women, an... ...by unabating trouble in his heart and in his mind, and there is no cure for his plight† (611-612), indicates men are unable to conquer the female womb. Through desire, deceit, and offspring mortal women and goddesses preserve autonomy over birth. Birth is an amazing ability. It is a uniquely female power. The Theogony provides a portrait of the struggle between the sexes for control of the womb. Men attempt to gain access to birth by monitoring and grasping control over what leaves the womb, through sexual force, and by destroying the powerful mother-child bonds. Nonetheless, women retain autonomy. Sheer force of will, as Hera’s birth illustrates, deceit, and strong mother-child bonds preserve female power of procreation. Through birth women influence and control the course of human (or deities) destiny. Through their wombs women gain powerful agency.

Internet and Education: Positive or Negative Aspect?

Internet and Education: Positive or Negative Aspect? The Internet started to boom in the 1990’s and has continued to evolve ever since. Today the concept of what was thought to be one of the greatest inventions has blown this old-time invention out of the water. In order for the Internet to be accessible a computer device is needed. Today on we can carry the Internet in our hands with wireless access; as before it was a fixed machine usually on a desk with multiple cords attached.Noting that the invention of the computer and Internet has only increased in value and quality the rate of use has also increased significantly. This increase use of the Internet has affected and impacted people around the world. People use it at home, work and school for different reasons such as to communicate, shop, and look up information. The question that withholds is whether or not Internet use is beneficial or problematic. A topic that relates to this ongoing question is the effects that Inter net use has on education and academic performance.The Internet is used through a wide variety of spectrums within education; teachers and students use the Internet on a daily basis. Studies have shown positive and negative factors of the Internet appearing in education from both student and instructor views. When looking at the Internet as a positive aspect there are many studies and factors that play a role in helping conclude this acquisition about Internet in an educational setting. The Internet can be very beneficial for students along with teachers and administrators.For example, the adult literacy and basic education (ALBE) classroom teachers have found the Internet to be beneficial for themselves as well their students (Berger, 2010). Jim I. Berger conducted a study using ALBE instructors to better understand their use of the Internet in the classrooms. These ALBE instructors explain they use the Internet to simply look up lesson plans and to communicate with the students on a daily basis (Berger, 2010). Berger (2010) sent a packet of 50 fifty-six-item surveys to every state director of ALBE services; in return he got 219 applications with an 18. % response rate (p. 155). When focusing more on the results and procedure Berger (2010) grouped the 56-item survey into 5 composite scales; (a) reasons for use (the Why scale), (b) ways the Internet was used (the Practice scale), (c) positive consequences (the PosCon scale), (d) negative consequences (the NegCon scale) and (e) reasons they would or could not use the Internet in their classroom (the Barrier Scale). Two specific parts of Berger’s study that helps conclude Internet is a positive aspect in education is the Why scale and the PosCon scale.Berger (2010) asked the respondents to use the Likert-like scale with values not, some, or very to address his survey questions. When reporting the results for the Why scale Berger chose the teachers who answered with very. Majority of the teachers (71. 8%) s aid they felt it was very important to use the Internet in class because students would one day need it in their professional lives, around half (54. 1%) thought the Internet helped students learn basic skills, a little less than half (40. 9%) stated they used it because they enjoyed to, while (31. 3%) of teachers felt the Internet makes them better teachers (Berger, 2010, p. 56). For the PosCon scale Berger (2010) reported the results based on ALBE instructors who agree or strongly agree. His findings concluded that 83. 5% reported that students were more empowered, 82. 4% thought the material was more engaging for the students, 82. 2% felt that students improved their basic skills, and 76. 2% thought they could incorporate higher-level thinking skills in their lessons. Also, a great proportion (70. 2%) stated that classes became more student centered and half (50. 4%) thought the students worked together more often (Berger, 2010, p. 157).To conclude Berger’s study it was fo und that the Internet was beneficial in education when looking at ALBE classrooms in more ways than one. However, a weakness of Berger’s study is the response rate. This is only a small fraction of instructors and teachers around the world. Similar to Berger’s positive findings is a study conducted by Gwo-Jen Hwang, Po-Han Wu and Chi-Chang Chen. Their study addresses the topic of web-based problem-solving activities. According to the Hwang et al. (2012) study online web-based problem-solving games are found to be beneficial in education.In their study an online game was developed for conducting web-based learning activates (Hwang et al. , 2012). Two classes of fifth and sixth graders participated in the study. One group was the experimental group while the other was the control group. The experimental group was guided by an educational computer game that used a Graphical Quiz approach to develop the game-board learning system, while the control group was guided by lear ning sheets and keyword search online (Hwang et al. 2012). Hwang et al. (2012) required both groups to take a pre-test and post-test regarding â€Å"butterfly ecology. In result Hwang et al. (2012) reported the online-education game not only improved the students’ learning achievement and attitudes, but also situated the students’ in a learning state filled with involvement, concentration and enjoyment. The results also show how the approach was effective; the learning activity conducted in this study showed that students were highly motivated in their web-based problem-solving tasks (Hwang et al. , 2012). Hwang et al. (2012) thus concludes that the students were highly engaged in the task due to the intrinsic motivations promoted through the game.Between these two studies it seems safe to say that the Internet is used in multiple ways in education and in general has a positive outcome. While studies like these show positive factors of Internet use in education there are also findings that conclude negative effects of Internet usage. Along with the increased use of the Internet comes increased amount of distractions. Distractions such as social networks, shopping sites, sport networks and YouTube are constantly being streamed from networks around the world. Researchers Jomon Aliyas Paul, Hope M.Baker, Justin Daniel Cochran (2012) believe there is a negative correlation between grades and time spent on laptops, tablets and cell phones during class. They also say it’s very common to see students using their phones during class; this behavior is not only distracting to the one using the mobile device but for others around them as well (Baker et al. , 2012). Noting this is an example of how the Internet in education is misused and often abused in educational settings. Relating back to Berger’s study, he concluded there are also some negative aspects of the Internet in education.Berger (2010), states 54. 4% of the instructors claim that students visited sites unrelated to assignments or class work, 36. 7% of instructors found that their classes split into those that did and those that did not know how to use the Internet, 23. 9% found that students visited inappropriate sites (porn, gambling), 22. 5% of instructors indicated that students copied material from the Internet and used it as their own, and 20. 9% felt that their students relied too heavily on the Internet for information (p. 157).His study shows that students are easily distracted by the endless uses of the Internet. As a college student I struggle with these distractions on a regular basis. Looking at a different spectrum of Internet and education researchers Nejla Canbulat, Sevil Inal, and Meral Kelleci conducted a study looking at the relationship between the Internet and academic performance for a small portion of high school students. To further explain the Canbulat et al. (2012) study, 804 high school students between the ages of 15 and 18 were c hosen randomly from four high schools in Istanbul city.One of the three questions their study asked was â€Å"Do computer and Internet using periods of high school students adversely affect their success at school? † They collected their data through a survey. They founded that the students average computer use periods were 2. 07 ±1. 5 hours daily and their average Internet access periods were 1. 8 ±1. 5 hours daily (Canbulat et al. , 2012, p. 1648). Depending on if the student had Internet access at home or had to access the Internet through a public place, such as a cafe, altered the results of time spent on the computer.In Nejla Canbulat, Sevil Inal, and Meral Kelleci’s (2012) study they restate Berson and Berson’s findings of 92% of 10800 teenagers between the ages of 12 and 18 had access to the Internet and spent most of their time messaging with people, surfing across websites, playing games and only 1% of them use the Internet for making searches and studying (p. 1644). Canbulat et al. (2012) founded that compared to this statement their study proposed that half of the teenager (50. 5%) connected to Internet for searching purposes; however, other reasons were chatting (18. 1%), playing games (12. %), listening to music (9. 7%), sharing content in forum sites (6. 6%) and accessing websites with sexual content (2. 4%) (p. 1649). Even though these percentages seem to correlate with a positive use of the Internet too much time spent searching and using the Internet causes problems in interpersonal relations (Canbulat et al. , 2012). To conclude their findings they state that the more time spent on the Internet adversely affected the student’s success at school. The study also founded that the increased spent time on the Internet decreased the academic success of students.The students that accessed the Internet at home used it less often than the ones who accessed the Internet through a cafe, reckoning that the Internet at hom e is kept under parental control (Canbulat et al. , 2012). This however may not be the case for every student who has a computer at home; this is only a small study that was done with high school students. When comparing Canbulat et al. and Berger’s studies it’s hard to differentiate whether the Internet is a positive or negative aspect within education due to the different views between teachers and tudents. Most teachers argue it’s a good thing for teaching and it also helps students interact with each other. However, some teachers believe that the increased use of Internet distracts students from their daily work by visiting non-related sites. These findings from Berger’s study relate to the Canbulat et al. correlation found between the increased use of the Internet and decreasing academic performances. Students are spending more and more time on these non-related sites affecting their studying habits and overall grades.There have been many studies con ducted about the Internet and the psychological effects it has created; some good while some bad. Certain researchers claim that Internet chatting decreases loneliness and depression, increases the feelings of happiness, and greatly enhances perceptions of social support and self-esteem (PW Kang 2007; Shaw and Gant 2002; Chen 2012). While others believe the increasing use of Internet is effecting face-to-face interactions by reducing time spent with family members and friends, thus creating more and more feelings of loneliness and depression (Kraut et al. 1998; Chen 2012).If the Internet does create these feelings of hopelessness and depression this could affect students not only socially but academically too. In the classroom these feelings of depression can often lead to alienation and feel worthy only when using the Internet. This could reduce the social interaction a student may have in school thus creating low self-esteem. A student may then cover these feelings up by using the Internet, which in turn would reduce the motivation of a student to do homework or study for upcoming exams. Overall the Internet is a positive aspect in the world of education.On the contrary it’s known for it’s devious distractions. Studies and research prove both cases are true among students and teachers. People today rely solely on the Internet as before it was just something to have. Is the Internet and technology the destruction of social interaction and resulting in increased isolation? Some critics argue thus is true while others oppose this idea as a whole. This is yet another issue that’s addressed with the concern of the Internet. Time can only tell. List of Reference Baker H. M. , Cochran, J. D. , & Paul, J. A. (2012).Effect of online social networking on student academic performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(6), 2117-2127. Berger, J. I. (2010). Profiles of Internet use among ALBE instructors. Adult Basic Education & Literacy Journal, 4(3) 1 51-160. Canbulat, N. , Inal, S. , & Kelleci, M. (2012). Internet use and its relation with the academic performance for a sample of high school students. HealthMed, 6(5), 1643-1650. Chen, C. , Hwang, G. , & Wu, P. (2012). An online game approach for improving students’ learning performance in web-based problem-solving activities.Computers & Education, 59(4), 1246-1256. Chen, S. (2012). Internet use and psychological well-being among college students: A latent profile approach. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(6), 2219-2226. Bibliography Baker H. M. , Cochran, J. D. , & Paul, J. A. (2012). Effect of online social networking on student academic performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(6), 2117-2127. Berger, J. I. (2010). Profiles of Internet use among ALBE instructors. Adult Basic Education & Literacy Journal, 4(3) 151-160. Canbulat, N. , Inal, S. & Kelleci, M. (2012). Internet use and its relation with the academic performance for a sample of high school students. HealthMed , 6(5), 1643-1650. Chen, S. (2012). Internet use and psychological well-being among college students: A latent profile approach. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(6), 2219-2226. Dodd, B. J. , & Antonenko, P. D. (2012). Use of signaling to integrate desktop virtual reality and online learning management systems. Computers & Education, 59(4), 1099-1108. Hwang, G. , Wu, P. , & Chen, C. (2012).An online game approach for improving students’ learning performance in web-based problem-solving activities. Computers & Education, 59(4), 1246-1256. Kiran-Esen, B. , & Korkmaz, M. (2012). The effects of peer-training about secure Internet use on adolescents. Turkish Psychological Counseling & Guidance Journal, 4(38), 180-187. Korkmaz, O. (2012). A validity and reliability study of the online cooperative learning attitude scale (OCLAS). Computers & Education, 59(4), 1162-1169. Otaibi, K. N. A. (2012). Attitudes towards the use of the Internet. Psychology Research, 2(3), 151-159.

Beowulf The Old-English Epic

The following article is an excerpt of an entry in the 1911 edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. BEOWULF. The epic of Beowulf, the most precious relic of Old English, and, indeed, of all early Germanic literature, has come down to us in a single MS., written about A.D. 1000, which contains also the Old English poem of Judith, and is bound up with other MSS. in a volume in the Cottonian collection now at the British Museum. The subject of the poem is the exploits of Beowulf, son of Ecgtheow and nephew of Hygelac, king of the Geatas, i.e. the people, called in Scandinavian records Gautar, from whom a part of southern Sweden has received its present name Gotland. The Story The following is a brief outline of the story, which naturally divides itself into five parts. Beowulf, with fourteen companions, sails to Denmark, to offer his help to Hrothgar, king of the Danes, whose hall (called Heorot ) has for twelve years been rendered uninhabitable by the ravages of a devouring monster (apparently in gigantic human shape) called Grendel, a dweller in the waste, who used nightly to force an entrance and slaughter some of the inmates. Beowulf and his friends are feasted in the long-deserted Heorot. At night the Danes withdraw, leaving the strangers alone. When all but Beowulf are asleep, Grendel enters, the iron-barred doors having yielded in a moment to his hand. One of Beowulfs friends is killed; but Beowulf, unarmed, wrestles with the monster, and tears his arm from the shoulder. Grendel, though mortally wounded, breaks from the conquerors grasp, and escapes from the hall. On the morrow, his bloodstained track is followed until it ends in a distant mere.All fear being now removed, the Danish king and his followers pass the night in Heorot, Beowulf a nd his comrades being lodged elsewhere. The hall is invaded by Grendels mother, who kills and carries off one of the Danish nobles. Beowulf proceeds to the mere, and, armed with sword and corslet, plunges into the water. In a vaulted chamber under the waves, he fights with Grendels mother and kills her. In the vault he finds the corpse of Grendel; he cuts off the head and brings it back in triumph.Richly rewarded by Hrothgar, Beowulf returns to his native land. He is welcomed by Hygelac, and relates to him the story of his adventures, with some details not contained in the former narrative. The king bestows on him lands and honors, and during the reigns of Hygelac and his son Heardred he is the greatest man in the kingdom. When Heardred is killed in battle with the Swedes, Beowulf becomes king in his stead.After Beowulf has reigned prosperously for fifty years, his country is ravaged by a fiery dragon, which inhabits an ancient burial-mound, full of costly treasure. The royal hall i tself is burned to the ground. The aged king resolves to fight, unaided, with the dragon. Accompanied by eleven chosen warriors, he journeys to the barrow. Bidding his companions retire to a distance, he takes up his position near the entrance to the mound - an arched opening whence issues a boiling stream.The dragon hears Beowulfs shout of defiance, and rushes forth, breathing flames. The fight begins; Beowulf is all but overpowered, and the sight is so terrible that his men, all but one, seek safety in flight. The young Wiglaf, son of Weohstan, though yet untried in battle, cannot, even in obedience to his lords prohibition, refrain from going to his help. With Wiglafs aid, Beowulf slays the dragon, but not before he has received his own death-wound. Wiglaf enters the barrow and returns to show the dying king the treasures that he has found there. With his last breath Beowulf names Wiglaf his successor, and ordains that his ashes shall be enshrined in a great mound, placed on a lo fty cliff, so that it may be a mark for sailors far out at sea.The news of Beowulfs dear-bought victory is carried to the army. Amid great lamentation, the heros body is laid on the funeral pile and consumed. The treasures of the dragons hoard are buried with his ashes; and when the great mound is finished, twelve of Beowulfs most famous warriors ride around it, celebrating the praises of the bravest, gentlest and most generous of kings. The Hero Those portions of the poem that are summarized above - that is to say, those which relate the career of the hero in progressive order - contain a lucid and well-constructed story, told with a vividness of imagination and a degree of narrative skill that may with little exaggeration be called Homeric. And yet it is probable that there are few readers of Beowulf who have not felt - and there are many who after repeated perusal continue to feel - that the general impression produced by it is that of a bewildering chaos. This effect is due to the multitude and the character of the episodes. In the first place, a very great part of what the poem tells about Beowulf himself is not presented in regular sequence, but by way of retrospective mention or narration. The extent of the material thus introduced out of course may be seen from the following abstract. When seven years old the orphaned Beowulf was adopted by his grandfather King Hrethel, the father of Hygelac, and was regarded by him with as much affection as any of his own sons. In youth, although famed for his wonderful strength of grip, he was generally despised as sluggish and unwarlike. Yet even before his encounter with Grendel, he had won renown by his swimming contest with another youth named Breca, when after battling for seven days and nights with the  waves  and  slaying  many sea-monsters, he came to land in the country of the Finns. In the disastrous invasion of the land of the Hetware, in which Hygelac was killed, Beowulf killed many of the  enemies, amongst them a chieftain of the  Hugas, named Daghrefn, apparently the slayer of Hygelac. In the retreat he once more displayed his powers as a swimmer, carrying to his ship the  armour  of thirty slain enemies. When he reached his native land, the widowed queen offered him the kingdom, her son Heardred be ing too young to rule. Beowulf, out of loyalty, refused to be made  king  and acted as the guardian of Heardred during his minority, and as his  counselor  after he came to mans estate. By giving shelter to the fugitive Eadgils, a rebel against his uncle the king of the Swain (the Swedes, dwelling to the north of the  Gautar), Heardred brought on himself an invasion, in which he lost his life. When Beowulf became king, he supported the cause of Eadgils by force of arms; the king of the Swedes was killed, and his nephew placed on the throne. Historical Value Now, with one brilliant exception - the story of the swimming-match, which is felicitously introduced and  finely  told - these retrospective passages are brought in more or less awkwardly, interrupt inconveniently the course of the narrative, and are too condensed and allusive in style to make any strong poetic impression. Still, they do serve to complete the portraiture of the heros character. There are, however, many other episodes that have nothing to do with Beowulf  himself  but seem to have been inserted with a deliberate intention of making the poem into a sort of  cyclopedia  of Germanic tradition. They include many particulars of what purports to be the history of the royal houses, not only of the  Gautar  and the  Danes,  but also of the Swedes, the continental Angles, the Ostrogoths, the Frisians and the  Heathobeards, besides references to matters of  unlocalized  heroic story such as the exploits of Sigismund. The Saxons are not named, and the Franks appear only as a dreaded hostile power. Of Britain there is no mention; and though there are some distinctly Christian passages, they are so incongruous in tone with the rest of the poem that they must be regarded as interpolations. In  general  the extraneous episodes have no great appropriateness to their  context,  and have the appearance of being abridged versions of stories that had been related at length in poetry. Their confusing effect, for modern readers, is increased by a curiously irrelevant  prologue. It begins by celebrating the ancient glories of the Danes, tells in allusive style the story of Scyld, the founder of the Scylding dynasty of Denmark, and praises the virtues of his son Beowulf. If this Danish Beowulf had been the hero of the poem, the opening would have been appropriate; but it seems strangely out of place as an introduction to the story of his namesake. However detrimental these redundancies may be to the poetic beauty of the epic, they add enormously to its interest for students of Germanic history or legend. If the mass of traditions which it purports to contain be genuine, the poem is of unique importance as a source of knowledge respecting the early history of the peoples of northern Germany and Scandinavia. But the value to be assigned to  Beowulf  in this respect can be determined only by ascertaining its probable date,  origin, and manner of composition. The criticism of the Old English epic has therefore for nearly a century been justly regarded as indispensable to the investigation of Germanic antiquities. The starting-point of all  Beowulf  criticism is the fact (discovered by N. F. S. Grundtvig in 1815) that one of the episodes of the poem belongs to authentic history. Gregory of Tours, who died in 594, relates that in the reign of Theodoric of Metz (511 - 534) the Danes invaded the kingdom, and carried off many captives and much plunder to their ships. Their king, whose name appears in the best MSS. as Chlochilaicus (other copies read Chrochilaicus, Hrodolaicus, c.), remained on shore intending to follow afterward, but was attacked by the Franks under Theodobert, son of Theodoric, and killed. The Franks then defeated the Danes in a naval battle and recovered the booty. The date of these events is ascertained to have been between 512 and 520. An anonymous history is written early in the eighth century  (Liber Hist. Francorum,  cap. 19) gives the name of the Danish king as Chochilaicus, and says that he was killed in the land of the Attoarii. Now it is related in  Beowulf  that Hygelac met his death in fighting against the Franks and the  Hetware  (the Old English form of Attoarii). The forms of the Danish kings name given by the Frankish historians are corruptions of the name of which the primitive Germanic form was Hugilaikaz, and which by regular phonetic change became in Old English  Hygelac,  and in Old Norse Hugleikr. It is true that the invading king is said in the histories to have been a Dane, whereas the Hygelac of  Beowulf  belonged to the Geatas or  Gautar. But a work called  Liber Monstrorum,  preserved in two MSS. of the 10th century, cites as an example of extraordinary stature a certain Huiglaucus, king of the Getae, who was killed by the Franks, and whose bones were preserved on an island at the mouth of the Rhine, and exhibited as a marvel. It is therefore evident that the personality of Hygelac, and the expedition in which, according to  Beowulf,  he died, belong not to the region of legend or poetic inventio n, but to that of historic fact. This noteworthy result suggests the possibility that what the poem tells of Hygelacs near relatives, and of the events of his reign and that of his successor, is based on historic fact. There is really nothing to forbid the supposition; nor is there any unlikelihood in the view that the persons mentioned as belonging to the royal houses of the Danes and Swedes had a real existence. It can be proved, at any rate, that several of the names are 1 Printed in Berger de Xivrey,  Traditions  Teratologiques  (1836), from  a MS.  in private hands. Another MS., now at Wolfenbiittel, reads Hunglacus for Huiglaucus, and (ungrammatically) gentes for  Getis.  derived from the native traditions of these two peoples. The Danish king Hrothgar and his brother Halga, the sons of Healfdene, appear in the  Historia Danica  of Saxo as Roe (the founder of Roskilde) and  Helgo, the sons of Haldanus. The Swedish princes Eadgils, son of Ohthere, and Onela, who are mentioned in  Beowulf,à ‚  are in the Icelandic  Heimskringla  called  Adils  son of  Ottarr, and Ali; the correspondence of the names, according to the phonetic laws of Old English and Old Norse, being strictly normal. There are other points of contact between  Beowulf  on the one hand and the Scandinavian records on the other, confirming the conclusion that the Old English poem contains much of the historical tradition of the  Gautar, the Danes and the Swedes, in its purest accessible form. Of the hero of the  poem,  no mention has been found elsewhere. But the name (the Icelandic form of which is  Bjolfr) is genuinely Scandinavian. It was borne by one of the early settlers in Iceland, and a monk named Biuulf is commemorated in the  Liber Vitae  of the church of Durham. As the historical character of Hygelac has been proved, it is not unreasonable to accept the authority of the poem for the statement that his nephew Beowulf succeeded Heardred on the throne of the  Gautar, and interfered in the dynastic quarrels of the Swedes. His swimming exploit among the Hetware, allowance being made for poetic exaggeration, fits remarkably well into the circumstances of the story told by Gregory of Tours; and perhaps his contest with Breca may have been an exaggeration of a real incident in his career; and even if it was originally related  of  some other hero, its attribution to the historical Beowulf may have been occasioned by his renown as a swimmer. On the other hand, it would be absurd to imagine that the combats with Grendel and his mother and with the fiery dragon can be exaggerated representations of actual occurrences. These exploits belong to the domain of pure mythology. That they have been attributed to Beowulf, in particular, might seem to be adequately accounted for by the general tendency to connect mythical achievements with the name of any famous hero. There are, however, some facts that seem to point to a more definite explanation. The Danish king Scyld Scefing, whose story is told in the opening lines of the poem, and his son Beowulf, are plainly identical with Sceldwea, son of Sceaf, and his son Beaw, who appear among the ancestors of Woden in the genealogy of the kings of Wessex given in the  Old English Chronicle.  The story of Scyld is related, with some details not found in  Beowulf,  by William of Malmesbury, and, less fully, by the 10th-century English historian Ethelwerd, though it is told not of Scyld himself, but of his father Sceaf. According to Williams version, Sceaf was found, as an infant, alone in a boat without oars, which had drifted to the island of Scandza. The child was asleep with his head on a  sheaf,  and from this circumstance, he obtained his name. When he grew up he reigned over the Angles at Slaswic. In  Beowulf  the same story is told of Scyld, with the addition that when he died his body was placed in a ship, laden with rich treasure, which was sent out to sea unguided. It is clear that in the original form of the tradition the name of the foundling was Scyld or Sceldwea, and that his cognomenScefing (derived from  sceaf,  a sheaf) was misinterpreted as a patronymic. Sceaf, therefore, is no genuine personage of tradition, but merely an etymological figment. The position of Sceldwea and Beaw (in Malmesburys Latin called Sceldius and Beowius) in the genealogy as anterior to Woden would not of itself prove that they belong to divine mythology and not to heroic legend. But there are independent reasons for believing that they were originally gods or demi-gods. It is a reasonable conjecture that the tales of victories over Grendel and the fiery dragon belong properly to the myth of Beaw. If Beowulf, the champion of the Gautar, had already become a theme of epic song, the resemblance of name might easily suggest the idea of enriching history by adding to it the achievements of Beaw. At the same time, the tradition that the hero of these adventures was a son of Scyld, who was identified (whether rightly or wrongly) with the eponymus of the Danish dynasty of the Scyldings, may well have prompted the supposition that they took place in Denmark. There is, as we shall see afterwards, some ground for believing that there were circulated in England two rival poetic versions of the story of the encounters with supernatural beings: the one referring them to Beowulf the Dane, while the other (represented by the existing poem) attached them to the legend of the son of Ecgtheow, but ingeniously contrived to do some justice to the alternative tradition by laying the scene of the Grendel incident at the court of a Scylding king. As the name of Beaw appears in the genealogies of English kings, it seems likely that the traditions of his exploits may have been brought over by the Angles from their continental home. This supposition is confirmed by evidence that seems to show that the Grendel legend was popularly current in this country. In the schedules of boundaries appended to two Old English charters there occurs mention of pools called Grendels mere, one in Wiltshire and the other in Staffordshire. The charter that mentions the Wiltshire Grendels mere speaks also of a place called  Beowan ham  (Beowas home), and another Wiltshire charter has a Scylds tree among the landmarks enumerated. The notion that ancient burial mounds were liable to be inhabited by dragons was common in the Germanic world: there is perhaps a trace of it in the Derbyshire place-name Drakelow, which means dragons barrow. While, however, it thus appears that the mythic part of the Beowulf story is a portion of primeval Angle traditio n, there is no proof that it was originally peculiar to the Angles; and even if it was so, it may easily have passed from them into the poetic cycles of the related peoples. There are, indeed, some reasons for suspecting that the blending of the stories of the mythic Beaw and the historical Beowulf may have been the work of Scandinavian and not of English poets. Prof. G. Sarrazin has pointed out the striking resemblance between the Scandinavian legend of Bodvarr Biarki and that of the Beowulf of the poem. In each, a hero from Gautland slays a destructive monster at the court of a Danish king, and afterwards is found fighting on the side of Eadgils (Adils) in Sweden. This coincidence cannot well be due to mere  chance; but  its exact significance is doubtful. On the one hand, it is possible that the English epic, which unquestionably derived its historical elements from  Scandinavian  song, may be indebted to the same source for its general plan, including the blending of history and myth. On the other hand, considering the late date of the authority for the Scandinavian traditions, we cannot be sure that the latter may not owe some of their material to English minstrels. There are similar alternative possibilities with regard to the explanation of the striking resemblances which certain incidents of the adventures with Grendel and the dragon bear to incidents in the narratives of Saxo and the Icelandic sagas. Date and Origin It is now time to speak of the probable date and origin of the poem. The conjecture that most naturally presents itself to those who have made no special study of the question, is that an English epic treating of the deeds of a Scandinavian hero on Scandinavian ground must have been composed in the days of Norse or Danish dominion in England. This, however, is impossible. The forms under which Scandinavian names appear in the poem show clearly that these names must have entered English tradition not later than the beginning of the 7th century. It does not indeed follow that the extant poem is of so early a date, but its syntax is remarkably archaic in  comparison  with that of the Old English poetry of the 8th century. The hypothesis that  Beowulf  is in whole or in part a translation from a Scandinavian original, although still maintained by some scholars, introduces more difficulties than it solves and must be dismissed as untenable. The limits of this article do not permit us to state and criticize the many elaborate theories that have been proposed respecting the origin of the poem. All that can be done is to set forth the view that appears to us to be most free from objection. It may be premised that although the existing MS. is written in the West-Saxon dialect, the phenomena of the language indicate transcription from an Anglian (i.e. a Northumbrian or Mercian) original; and this conclusion is supported by the fact that while the poem contains one important episode relating to the Angles, the name of the Saxons does not occur in it at all. In its original form,  Beowulf  was a product of the time when poetry was composed not to be read, but to be recited in the halls of kings and nobles. Of course, ​an entire epic could not be recited on a single occasion; nor can we suppose that it would be thought out from beginning to end before any part of it was presented to an audience. A singer who had pleased his hearers with a tale of adventure would be called on to tell them of earlier or later events in the career of the hero; and so the story would grow, until it included all that the poet knew from tradition, or could invent in harmony with it. That  Beowulf  is concerned with the deeds of a foreign hero is less surprising than it seems at first sight. The minstrel of early Germanic times was required to be learned not only in the traditions of his own people but also in those of the other peoples with whom they felt their kinship. He had a double task to perform. It was not enough that his songs should give pleasure; his patrons demanded that he should recount faithfully the history and genealogy both of their own line and of those other royal houses who shared with them the same divine ancestry, and who might be connected with them by ties of marriage or warlike alliance. Probably the singer was always himself an original poet; he might often be content to reproduce the songs that he had learned, but he was doubtless free to improve or expand them as he chose, provided that his inventions did not conflict with what was supposed to be historical truth. For all we know, the intercourse of the Angles with Scandinavia, which enabled their poets to obtain new knowledge of the legends of Danes, Gautar, and Swedes, may not have ceased until their conversion to Christianity in the 7th century. And even after this event, whatever may have been the attitude of churchmen towards the old heathen poetry, the kings and warriors would be slow to lose their interest in the heroic tales that had deli ghted their ancestors. It is probable that down to the end of the 7th century, if not still later, the court poets of Northumbria and Mercia continued to celebrate the deeds of Beowulf and of many another hero of ancient days. This article is an excerpt of an entry in the 1911 edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, which is out of copyright in the U.S. See the encyclopedia main page for disclaimer and copyright information.